Welcome to this blog about Geography and History for all my students. Bienvenidos a este blog sobre Geografía e Historia para todos mis alumnos. A new way to learn !!!
CURSOS
viernes, 26 de diciembre de 2014
miércoles, 3 de diciembre de 2014
CONSTITUCIÓN ESPAÑOLA DE 1978
- DON JUAN CARLOS I, REY DE ESPAÑA, A TODOS LOS QUE LA PRESENTE VIEREN Y ENTENDIEREN, SABED: QUE LAS CORTES HAN APROBADO Y EL PUEBLO ESPAÑOL RATIFICADO LA SIGUIENTE CONSTITUCIÓN:
PREÁMBULO
Garantizar la convivencia democrática dentro de la Constitución y de las leyes conforme a un orden económico y social justo.
Consolidar un Estado de Derecho que asegure el imperio de la ley como expresión de la voluntad popular.
Proteger a todos los españoles y pueblos de España en el ejercicio de los derechos humanos, sus culturas y tradiciones, lenguas e instituciones.
Promover el progreso de la cultura y de la economía para asegurar a todos una digna calidad de vida.
Establecer una sociedad democrática avanzada, y
Colaborar en el fortalecimiento de unas relaciones pacíficas y de eficaz cooperación entre todos los pueblos de la Tierra.
En consecuencia, las Cortes aprueban y el pueblo español ratifica la siguiente
CONSTITUCIÓN
domingo, 23 de noviembre de 2014
EL ROMÁNICO DE SANTA MARÍA DE TAHÜLL
ANÁLISIS Y COMENTARIO DE LAS PINTURAS DE SANTA MARÍA DE TAHULL
Pintura al fresco del ábside de Santa María de Tahull, Pirineos leridanos. Mediados del siglo XII. En la actualidad se exponen en el Museo de Arte de Cataluña, Barcelona.
El tema representado es la Maiestas Mariae , iconografía bizantina derivada de la Virgen Kiriotissa. En ella, la Madre sirve como trono del Hijo, rodeados ambos por la mandorla mística. Cristo, con el pergamino de la Ley en la izquierda, bendice con la derecha mientras recibe el homenaje de los Reyes Magos (Epifanía). Estos llevan las ofrendas con las manos veladas en señal de respeto, iniciando Melchor una genuflexión o proskinesis ante la divinidad. Sobre sus cabezas aparecen las estrellas del relato evangélico.
En la zona inferior aparece, bajo una galería de arcos, el ColegioApostólico compuesto, de izquierda a derecha, por: San Andrés (¿?), San Pedro con su pelo blanco, San Pablo, representado (como es habitual) calvo, y San Juan Evangelista que sostiene su libro con la mano velada, señalándolo con el dedo.
La división entre ambas zonas se realiza a través de una cinta continua representada de forma zigzagueante en perspectiva.
Por dejado de estos dos, aún existe un tercer registro ocupado por clípeos con un bestiario fantástico y, bajo ellos, unos cortinajes figurados
La técnica empleada es el fresco sobre revoco de yeso y con retoques al temple.
La composición es simétrica y adaptada al marco. El eje, tanto visual como temático, es la Virgen con el Niño en la parte superior, utilizando la ventana real del ábside (aunque integrada en la composición general) en la zona inferior. A ambos lados se desarrollan figuras en paralelo que en el Colegio Apostólico son organizadas por medio de recursos arquitectónicos (arquería simulada). Junto a la Virgen , y debido al número impar de los personajes, el autor recurre a una serie de recursos para equilibrar la imagen. Entre ellos se destaca la postura de piernas abiertas de Melchor que, en espacio, ocupa la misma zona triangular de Gaspar y Baltasar. Por otra parte, el leve giro de Cristo, bendiciendo hacia nuestra izquierda, refuerza visualmente esta zona, dejando ambas partes equilibradas.
El dibujo, como es habitual en la época, resulta fundamental en la creación de la imagen. Para los perfiles se utilizan líneas gruesas que separan las figuras y delimitan los distintos campos cromáticos. También son empleadas con cierta frecuencia las líneas paralelas muy juntas en los pliegues que intentan generar, aunque sea de una forma bastante más mental que visual, claroscuros en los paños. En bordados y arquitecturas fingidas aparece un mayor detallismo a la hora de representar pedrerías y adornos fuertemente influidos por la estética bizantina y las obras contemporáneas de orfebrería.
Por lo general, se busca un fuerte rigor geométrico en todo el dibujo, prescindiendo del detalle en favor de trazos simples y amplios.
El color es plano y sin tonalidades que sólo se consiguen a través de las líneas paralelas ya citadas. Suelen aparecer muy saturados, entre otras causas debido a la escasa iluminación que tendrían estas iglesias en el momento en el que se decoran.
Alguno de estos colores responden a un objetivo simbólico (el rojo y el azul del manto mariano que representan la pasión y la soledad, respectivamente), apreciándose también una intención estética a la hora de combinarlos, como se puede ver en la alternancia de los nimbos del Colegio Apostólico o los colores cruzados que se usan en el grupo central en el que la túnica del Hijo repite, sobre un fondo azul, el manto inferior de la Virgen. De esta manera, y sin romper el bloque único que componen Madre e Hijo conseguido por el bloque cerrado y el ritmo cromático, existe una diferenciación de ambos personajes.
La luz, como también es norma en la época, es casi inexistente. En el románico no se utilizan los conceptos de la luz ambiente o foco lumínico, pues los personajes se sitúan en el espacio atemporal de lo divino, fuera de las experiencias ópticas. Sólo en los ya citados plegados o en ciertas zonas de manos y caras existe un tímida intención de crear claroscuros, de nuevo más mentales que visuales.
En lo referente a la perspectiva, no existe interés por representar elespacio de una forma real. Los fondos son planos, utilizándose el recurso de bandas de colores que ya se empleaba en los beatos mozárabes. En la zona inferior, la arquitectura pintada también resulta plana e ilógica en lo constructivo, con capiteles florales sobrepuestos al arranque de los arcos. Sólo en la greca que separa ambos ambientes nos encontramos con un intento de representación tridimensional, aunque con ciertos errores.
Frente a lo dicho (anulación del espacio y sus relaciones), resultan evidentes las convenciones jerárquicas en cuanto a los tamaños, apareciendo la Virgen mucho mayor, aunque se encuentre sentada, que los Reyes Magos. Su función es mostrar la importancia de los distintos personajes de una forma evidente, sin necesidad de otro tipo de análisis.
En cuanto a las figuras, son las suyas figuras frontales e hieráticas, sin intención de expresión ni volumetría. Se trata de una herencia bizantina en donde el autor, más que representar personas reales, trabaja con arquetipos, con ideas visuales fuera de lo temporal y cotidiano. Sus convencionalismos proceden de su ámbito divino, expresamente lejano del mundo real en donde vive el fiel.
COMENTARIO.
La obra que analizamos responde a la perfección a los modos e ideología de la época románica. Estos, como es sabido, no pretenden larepresentación naturalista del mundo, sino al contrario, buscan una funcióndidáctica para el pueblo analfabeto. De resultas de ello, existe unarenuncia tanto a la belleza como a la representación realista, eliminando claroscuros, uso de la perspectiva, cánones correctos e, incluso, expresiones. Se busca una imagen pedagógica de lo divino, utilizándose formas y maneras que logren transmitir su inmutabilidad (hieratismo) e importancia (convenciones jerárquicas).
Como origen de esta estética de lo trascendente, estos artistas románicos vuelven sus ojos al mundo bizantino y al prerrománico (y en general, en las artes arcaicas) , recogiendo, tanto sus iconografías como su estilística. De ellos también extraen la idea del arte como imagen de lo teológico que no se complace en las apariencias visuales sino que las considera como un simple medio para transmitir ideas religiosas y morales (Argullol lo pone en contacto con la adopción del modelo neoplatónico por parte de San Agustín, con el desprestigio de la realidad frente a la idea, en este caso religiosa)
Es un arte al servicio del mensaje, condicionado a él de tal manera que llega a prescindir de técnicas y conocimientos por el propio hecho de no desviar la mirada a aspectos puramente técnicos. (Esta será la herencia que, sin ningún elemento religioso, se volverá a recoger en el arte contemporáneo, como Picasso en las Señoritas de Avignon, renunciando al realismo)
Es un arte al servicio del mensaje, condicionado a él de tal manera que llega a prescindir de técnicas y conocimientos por el propio hecho de no desviar la mirada a aspectos puramente técnicos. (Esta será la herencia que, sin ningún elemento religioso, se volverá a recoger en el arte contemporáneo, como Picasso en las Señoritas de Avignon, renunciando al realismo)
De esta preeminencia de lo significativo frente a lo formal, surge sufuerte carga simbólica en donde cada cosa se convierte en un símbolo de lectura teológica que luego los sermones, al igual que ocurría en la escultura, terminaba por especificar. De esta manera el nimbo significaría el carácter divino del que lo lleva, reservándose el crucífero a Cristo o las manos veladas la importancia religiosa del objeto (Evangelio en la figura de San Juan, en el Colegio Apostólico). Incluso las propias arquitecturas, según algunos autores, podrían ser interpretadas como una referencia a la Jerusalén Celeste presente en el Apocalipsis.
Para el hombre románico, fuertemente influido por el mensaje eclesiástico, el mundo es una conjunción de símbolos de lo divino que es necesario descodificar. Este papel le corresponde a la Iglesia que, además de transmitir contenidos religiosos, los entremezcla con otros morales quereafirman la situación dominante basada en lo estamental. Los sermones e imágenes abundan constantemente en una imagen de la sociedad basada en categorías cerradas (estamentos) con funciones precisas (nobleza, la defensa; clero, el rezo; no privilegiados el trabajo) que ha de respetarse por su origen divino. Se pretende así una obediencia a las jerarquías que se trasladaría de lo divino (véase la genuflexión de Melchor ante Cristo) a lo cotidiano (del siervo ante su señor eclesiástico o laico) como algo propio del plan divino que Dios ha establecido sobre el mundo
Para todo este control ideológico del pueblo se suele recurrir habitualmente almiedo generado por el castigo. En este sentido es habitual las referencias al fin del mundo (Apocalipsis representado en la imagen por el Cristo como Juez o Pantocrator) o al infierno.
Para todo este control ideológico del pueblo se suele recurrir habitualmente almiedo generado por el castigo. En este sentido es habitual las referencias al fin del mundo (Apocalipsis representado en la imagen por el Cristo como Juez o Pantocrator) o al infierno.
Ambas lecturas aparecen en las pinturas de una iglesia casi contigua a la que analizamos. Nos referimos a San Clemente de Tahull en donde aparece representado la visión apocalíptica de Cristo rodeado por el Tetramorfos, obra de un artista cercano al de Santa María, acaso de su mismo taller que procedería de las zonas del norte de Italia en donde se estaba gestando, bajo modelos bizantinos, esta estética románica.
Pantocrator de San Clemente de Tahull
.
De la misma manera se encuentra emparentado con las pinturas murales de Maderuelo o San Miguel de Gormaz, de lectura iconográfica más compleja pero estilo relacionado, lo cual ha hecho pensar a algunos especialistas la misma mano en ambos conjuntos o, al menos, el mismo taller, uno de los más importantes de influencia italiana en la Península.
sábado, 8 de noviembre de 2014
Largest Pottery Workshop of Greek Antiquity Found
German archeologists have discovered the largest industrial quarter of the Greek world, during an excavation in Sicily.
Streching for more than 3,200 feet, the craft district relied on about 80 kilns for the production of ceramics.
“The largest one is 17 feet in diameter, making it the biggest kiln ever found in a Greek city,” Martin Bentz, an archeologist at the University of Bonn, told Discovery News.
The finding was made in the periphery of Selinunte, on the southwest coast of Sicily.
The farthest west of the Greek colonies, known for its grand temples, Selinunte enjoyed centuries of prosperity before being reduced to rubble by the Carthaginians during the first Punic War.
Located along the river Cottone, now silted up, the industrial quarter operated inside the city walls.
“It was separated from the rest of the city by an non-built-up area so to protect the inhabitants from fire danger, smell and noise,” Bentz said.
Bentz’s team made long trenches to reach the end of the workshop and noticed it’s one big homogeneous construction built on four terraces on the slopes of the city hill.
The industrial quarter featured a central courtyard for drying the products before firing, two large working and firing areas and, at the end toward the city, a shop to sell the products.
“The whole construction is more than 3,900 square feet, by far the largest workshop we know in the Greek world,” Bentz said.
The quarter and the workshop were founded around 550 B.C. At that time, the production focused on small artistic terracotta statuettes.
Around the middle of the 5th century B.C., the new huge structure was built, beginning a mass production of roof tiles and vases of every kind.
The workshop was destroyed when the Carthagians conquered Selinus, as the Greeks called it, in 409 B.C.
“We have a thick ash layer which covered the structures and which can be well dated by coins,” Bentz said.
Begun four years ago, the excavation is scheduled to continue until 2016 at least.
jueves, 16 de octubre de 2014
ORIGINS OF BOURBON DYNASTY IN SPAIN
Bourbon dynasty: from1700
Charles II dies in November 1700, leaving the entire Spanish inheritance to a member of the Bourbon dynasty - Philip, a younger grandson of Louis XIV. The resulting European war takes place largely in the Netherlands, Germany and northern Italy. Within Spain itself, where the 18-year-old king arrives in 1701 as Philip V, there is at first relative calm. Philip wins immediate support in the central regions of the kingdom.
But from 1704 the allies (those fighting for the Habsburgs against the Bourbons in this dynastic war) begin to make inroads on the peripheral areas of Spain.
Gibraltar is captured in 1704. In the following year the regions of the north and east (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia) declare themselves for the Habsburg cause and are occupied by imperial troops - who even advance far enough to seize Madrid for two months during the summer of 1706.
Thereafter the Bourbon forces steadily regain control, starting with a major victory at Almansa in 1707. A succesful campaign in 1710 leaves Philip V in control of the whole of the Spanish kingdom except Catalonia - a region long inclined to independence and doing its best to seize this opportunity.
The eventual terms of the peace, agreed at Utrecht in 1713, confirm Philip V's tenure of the Spanish throne and his rule also over Spanish America (but the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and northern Italy go to the Habsburgs).
The immediate effect of the change of dynasty in Spain is that the court and government become dominated by French advisers, sent south by Louis XIV to secure his grandson's rule. In many ways this represents an improvement, since French bureaucracy is superior to that of Spain. Moreover the support of outlying regions for the Habsburg cause provides a welcome pretext for centralization, removing the traditional liberties still enjoyed by these medieval Spanish kingdoms.
In other respects the arrival of Philip makes relatively little difference to Spain. Exceptionally religious by nature, he is at ease among the rigours of Spain's Catholicism. During his reign the Inquisition conducts as many as 728 autos-da-fé, imposing on heretics some 14,000 sentences of varying degrees of severity.
In imperial and commercial concerns Philip also follows the policy of his predecessors. Trade with the Spanish colonies is still reserved for Spanish ships, prompting massive smuggling by other maritime powers and frequent skirmishes in the Caribbean - as in the case of Jenkins' Ear, which leads to war with Britain.
Read more: http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1764&HistoryID=ab50>rack=pthc#ixzz3GJ1xuZER
Charles II dies in November 1700, leaving the entire Spanish inheritance to a member of the Bourbon dynasty - Philip, a younger grandson of Louis XIV. The resulting European war takes place largely in the Netherlands, Germany and northern Italy. Within Spain itself, where the 18-year-old king arrives in 1701 as Philip V, there is at first relative calm. Philip wins immediate support in the central regions of the kingdom.
But from 1704 the allies (those fighting for the Habsburgs against the Bourbons in this dynastic war) begin to make inroads on the peripheral areas of Spain.
Gibraltar is captured in 1704. In the following year the regions of the north and east (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia) declare themselves for the Habsburg cause and are occupied by imperial troops - who even advance far enough to seize Madrid for two months during the summer of 1706.
Thereafter the Bourbon forces steadily regain control, starting with a major victory at Almansa in 1707. A succesful campaign in 1710 leaves Philip V in control of the whole of the Spanish kingdom except Catalonia - a region long inclined to independence and doing its best to seize this opportunity.
The eventual terms of the peace, agreed at Utrecht in 1713, confirm Philip V's tenure of the Spanish throne and his rule also over Spanish America (but the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and northern Italy go to the Habsburgs).
The immediate effect of the change of dynasty in Spain is that the court and government become dominated by French advisers, sent south by Louis XIV to secure his grandson's rule. In many ways this represents an improvement, since French bureaucracy is superior to that of Spain. Moreover the support of outlying regions for the Habsburg cause provides a welcome pretext for centralization, removing the traditional liberties still enjoyed by these medieval Spanish kingdoms.
In other respects the arrival of Philip makes relatively little difference to Spain. Exceptionally religious by nature, he is at ease among the rigours of Spain's Catholicism. During his reign the Inquisition conducts as many as 728 autos-da-fé, imposing on heretics some 14,000 sentences of varying degrees of severity.
In imperial and commercial concerns Philip also follows the policy of his predecessors. Trade with the Spanish colonies is still reserved for Spanish ships, prompting massive smuggling by other maritime powers and frequent skirmishes in the Caribbean - as in the case of Jenkins' Ear, which leads to war with Britain.
Read more: http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1764&HistoryID=ab50>rack=pthc#ixzz3GJ1xuZER
sábado, 13 de septiembre de 2014
HISTORY OF SPAIN
The history of Spain is one of the most fascinating in the world and Spanish history and culture has helped to shape the modern world into what it is today. Although Spain is a relatively small territory located in southwestern Europe, the history of Spain is of grandeur and is strikingly different from that of the rest of the continent.
The timeline of Spanish history tells the story of a land that has been sought after by many civilizations: the Carthaginians and Romans fought over it, the Arabs conquered it and the Catholic monarchs would recover Spain and convert it into the most powerful empire in the world upon the discovery of America. The Spanish Empire reached its peak under King Felipe II, who unified the Spanish territory and lands: from the Philippines to the Americas as well as Portugal, the Netherlands, Italy and some of present day Germany.
From this moment forward, Spain’s history reached a period of economic and political decadence which was accompanied by both foreign and civil wars. The 19th century would mark an important part of Spanish history with the loss of important Spanish territories and the collapse of the Spanish Empire. The independence achieved by Spanish territories in the Americas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines significantly shaped the world and modern Spanish history.
Browse through this Spanish history timeline of links to learn more about the history of Spain and the role that Spain has played in the “theatre” of world history. The more you understand Spain’s history and culture, the faster you will love to life in Spain.
martes, 26 de agosto de 2014
Comienza el curso
Se acaban las vacaciones y dentro de poco volveremos a vernos. Aprovechad para cargar las pilas y coger fuerzas para el curso que viene...
De momento, podéis ir aprendiendo la importancia de la lectura en este enlace que he encontrado...
De momento, podéis ir aprendiendo la importancia de la lectura en este enlace que he encontrado...
¡¡¡ HASTA PRONTO !!!
martes, 1 de julio de 2014
viernes, 23 de mayo de 2014
martes, 20 de mayo de 2014
EUROPEAN ELECTIONS 2014
The 2014 European elections: this time it's different
The European elections of 22-25 May 2014 give voters the chance to influence the future political course of the European Union when they elect the 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) to represent their interests for the next five years.
When is election day?
Each member state has its own electoral laws and each one decides on what day its citizens will go to the polls during the four-day election period from 22 to 25 May 2014. British voters will turn out on 22 May to elect their 73 MEPs. Irish voters will choose their 11 MEPs between 22 and 25 May (exact date to be decided by Irish Government). The results from all 28 states will be announced on the evening of Sunday 25 May.
How many MEPs will be elected?
There have been 766 Members of the European Parliament since Croatia joined the EU in July 2013 but this number is being scaled down at the 2014 elections to 751 and will stay at that level in future. These MEPs will represent over 500 million citizens in 28 member states. The seats are allocated among the various states, by the EU treaties, on the basis of 'degressive proportionality', meaning countries with larger populations have more seats than smaller ones but the latter have more seats than strict proportionality would imply.
Why are these elections different?
As the European Union seeks to pull through the economic crisis and EU leaders reflect on what direction to take in future, these are the most important European elections to date.
They not only allow voters to pass judgment on EU leaders' efforts to tackle the eurozone crisis and to express their views on plans for closer economic and political integration; they are also the first elections since the Lisbon Treaty of 2009 gave the European Parliament a number of important new powers.
One major new development introduced by the Treaty is that, when the EU member states nominate the next president of the European Commission to succeed José Manuel Barroso in autumn 2014, they will - for the first time - have to take account of the European election results. The new Parliament must endorse this candidate: it 'elects' the Commission president, in the words of the Treaty. This means voters now have a clear say in who takes over at the helm of EU government.
Of the 13 European political parties, five have nominated a candidate to succeed the current Commission President. The EPP has nominated Jean-Claude Juncker, former Luxembourg prime minister and former Eurogroup president, the PES candidate is Martin Schulz, current president of the European Parliament, the Liberals and Democrats have opted for Guy Verhofstadt, former Belgian prime minister and current Liberal group leader in the EP, the Greens have nominated a duo of current MEPs, French José Bové and German Ska Keller, while the European Left have put forward Alexis Tsipras, leader of the Greek SYRIZA party.
The new political majority that emerges from the elections will also shape European legislation over the next five years in areas from the single market to civil liberties. The Parliament - the only directly elected EU institution - is now a linchpin of the European decision-making system and has an equal say with national governments on nearly all EU laws.
martes, 8 de abril de 2014
SPRING
Spring is one of the four conventional temperate seasons, following winter and preceding summer. There are various technical definitions of spring, but local usage of the term varies according to local climate, cultures and customs.
When it is spring in the Northern Hemisphere, it will be autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. At the spring equinox, days are close to 12 hours long with day length increasing as the season progresses. Spring and "springtime" refer to the season, and also to ideas of rebirth, rejuvenation, renewal, resurrection and regrowth.
Subtropical and tropical areas have climates better described in terms of other seasons, e.g. dry or wet, monsoonal or cyclonic. Often the cultures have locally defined names for seasons which have little equivalence to the terms originating in Europe.
lunes, 24 de febrero de 2014
THE DAY OF ANDALUCIA
The Day of Andalucía (Día de Andalucía),
also known as Andalucía Day, marks the anniversary of a referendum held
on February 28, 1980. A large majority of voters supported this
referendum for Andalucía to become an autonomous community in Spain.
What do people do?
Many people spend the day quietly with family or close friends. However, some people organize or attend private parties with traditional music, dancing, food and drink. Some municipalities hold communal meals with traditional foods, drinks and entertainment. Local politicians may present people with certificates or medals for service to the community.Public life
The Day of Andalucía is a public holiday in the autonomous community of Andalucía on February 28. Public life is generally quiet and many businesses and other organizations are closed. Many stores are closed but some bakers and food stores may be open. Public transport services generally run to a reduced schedule but there may be no services in rural areas.If February 28 falls on a Sunday, regional or local authorities may move the public holiday to a different date. If February 28 falls on a Tuesday or Thursday, many businesses and organizations are also closed on Monday, February 27, or Friday, February 29 or March 1. The Day of Andalucía is not a public holiday in the rest of Spain on February 28.
Background
The autonomous community of Andalucía shares international land borders with Portugal and Gibraltar. Within Spain, it borders the autonomous communities of Castile-La Mancha, Extremadura and Murcia. People in Andalucia voted for the region to become an autonomous community of Spain on February 28, 1980. However, the Spanish Parliament only accepted Andalucia as an historic nationality in 2006.Symbols
Andalucía's flag is widely displayed on the Day of Andalucía. It consists of three equal horizontal bars. The top and lower bars are dark green and the middle bar is white. Andalucía's coat of arms is at the center of the flag. Andalucía's coat of arms consists of an image of the mythical Greek hero Heracles between two columns. The columns represent the Pillars of Heracles. These are the rocks on either side of the Straits of Gibraltar.martes, 28 de enero de 2014
martes, 14 de enero de 2014
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